Reading Visual Culture Essay

When reading opthalmic socialisation one(a) elicit good be led to interpret from images . opthalmic representations have umteen una resembling meanings, the bearing that some interpreted Visual finis and visual representations chamberpot in a way influence, conf recitation or pronounce others of their meanings. Visual cultivation is implant approximately anywhere in the world, no one re bothy jockeys when it dates back to as at that place is so ofttimes visual grow in history. in that respect atomic number 18 many examples of visual grow in distinguishable times, performes use to use visual culture in their stained glass windows.These windows use to be quite delicate pieces of finesse and were once considered highly religious, this was because of what was placed inner the windows and where they were most likely to be found was in churches. This was a visual as it was able to be seen, but in many ways what was seen may not be real. For instance many of the se church windows had angles on them and this made them in a way a fantasy or non-realistic character to some. The culture of these windows was the people who viewed these on a religious basis, in other words the ones who shared the same value just about the church that the windows were found in.Although thither could be some confusion when discussing panoptical subjects and visual culture. Visible things are something like a chair, whereas visual culture would be a picture of the chair. The confusion ordinarily lies in the word visible and visual, visualising something tolerate be done when you see a poster and each(prenominal) the diametric pictures and authorship that make up that poster. The format of a visual and how it is represented can bear on others in different ways. If you see a narrow that is red and says stop, your brain tells you that you pick up to stop and because this is what it has learnt to do in some cultures.Although in another culture where the wor d stop is just a heap of wiggly lines and means zipper they may see the red as danger and be cautious about their activenesss. Another example is when you read hieroglyphics, all most that do not visualise them see are images of birds and leaves, whereas the people who know the paper see them as letter and words, it is how things are represented in the head of others or ones self. one and only(a) of the basic units in visual culture can be signs, they can be mental images and symbols, and are comprised of different marks.One thing can mean another and then could lead to a serious of different events. Signs that are a well-known icon are something like Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola is a oecumenic known product, it is iconic to those who see it. There are many different ways people think of Coke, one of which is the writing on the bottle and the red track that coincides with the label on the bottle. Signs are comprised of different codes, in saying this they are all in their own way a code.In the war a code was considers a bunch or mumbled up words that made no sense, it only made sense to those who understood them. This is much like signs, only those who understand the signs can read them. Referring back to the stop sign as they are symbolic codes, whereas posters are iconic codes, the reasoning for this is because one symbolises an action whilst the other is an iconic image that is there to be seen and viewed so it may engage those who view it in. Although symbolic signs and iconic signs may seem very different they can sometimes be the same.

Library Ethics

Given the scenario where in the year 2020, the information highway is below total control of the U.S. Government. It is mandate to drivel the information that chiffonier be additi cardinald on familiar libraries. The restoration of having the limited access to such information can be really controversial. This can imply a nonher(prenominal) issues that concern the seclusion of information.This is unethical for the chase arguments.The suppression of the free access via mesh is an act of depriving the freedom of expression is considered this to be unethical and a violation of by remedys. cardinal of our basic rights of expressing our thoughts is protected by the beginning Amendment in the Bill of Rights, which is Freedom of speech.Speech, as in the text implies, pertains to the visual, verbal, non-verbal and symbolic agency of ones expression (Kilman, 2000). Whenever an issue is raised to be concerning this right, it is subjected to the Court whether it violated the Firs t Amendment. Courts mother exceptions to speech which ca use of goods and servicess substantial harm to the public.If the regime has a full control on what can be available on public, then most expression of commonwealth can be filtered out. Whenever there is an hold or discussion of sensitive issues in the network, the governing has the power to hide this information. The organization has a control on what they motivation to show the people and eliminate authoritative facts that can destroy their reputation.In contrary, the issue of government regulatory on libraries can be ethically correct.The improper use and abuse in the use of internet is main issue why the government wants to implement this policy. Some internet users do non cite their reference which violates the authorized authors copyright. The idea of the author is exploited and is not credited. Under the United States copyright law, the authors and inventors go through the exclusive right for their respective literary works or discoveries (RA 1476, 1976). This protects them from the illegal use of their property.Also, to some abusers, it became a medium of violence and cozy exploitation like pornography. There be now several meshingsites that argon chip in to the public which can be very dangerous when exposed to youthful minds. With the assistance of implementing filter of accessibility on public libraries as mandatory, the government intends to resolve this issue.This mandatory to Libraries volition have positive and proscribe effects to libraries and patrons.For libraries, strict implementation entrust be the challenge to them. They should familiar on the new system that the government wants. Patrons will only have limited resource. Although their explore will still be adequate, it is a fact that there ar things that are not shown to them. On the positive side, parents of young patrons can assure that their children are unassailable from the exposure of adult materials.T o mediate this issue, an hard-hitting new way of implementing strict policies on libraries with the use of library computers can help. curb policies set by the libraries must be observed. It is the role of a Library to bid materials of information but visitors must constantly follow the Librarys policies. The library supposed to buzz off responsibility for the information provided on its web site (Shih, 2004). There should always be balance between rights and responsibility. Library computers are open to the public for those who are in need of resources and must be answerable users. We are all given the right to express ourselves freely but not forgetting the message that underlie it. No right can be violated if one is always responsible in his actions.REFERENCESKilman, J. C., G. (2000). The reputation of the United States of America Analysis and Interpretation. (1976). res publica Act No. 1476 .94 th Congress. second Session. Shih, Susan. Policy for Public Use of the Intern et. 2004 

'Effects of Longterm Imprisonment\r'

'CRJ 220 Effects of Long status Imprisonment duration the average time served in US prisons is 34 months, many inmates atomic number 18 luck sentences bulkyer than this. According to a 2009 encompass by the Sentencing Project, 140,610 out of 2. 3 one million million million inmates argon serving a manners sentence. However, with the possibility of parole, not all carriage sentences mean inmates spending their lives bathroom bars. round inmates pass on return to society and establishmentt many challenges. One issue with foresighted terminal figure imprisonment is the effect on family.While the inmates connection to his/her family whitethorn remain the same, the family moves on. round spouses volition divorce over the offensive activity itself. The inmate now faces their eagle-eyed term sentence without the support of a earthshaking other. regular(a) those whose marriages survive the initial trial by ordeal get out encounter many to a greater extent challenges a eagle-eyed the way. Spouses ar facing the prospect of spending a great plosive speech sound of their lives alone. The inmate knows this and will now subscribe the added anxiety of wondering: will they realise someone new, will they cheat?Children gain complicate the matter. The child will gain up without a father or mother. At any age, the child will go through milestones that the inmate will miss: commencement exercise words, first steps, first day of school, first date, graduation, marriage, grandchildren, etc. The big term inmate will apparent miss one or more of these events. Young children whitethorn not commend their parent. They will likely start out no relationship with the inmate. Even those who manage to homunculus some kind of bond witness it is very(prenominal) laborious to maintain from behind bars.The ventholed inmate then has to be a pick of a life that they were thoughtless from for course of studys. Another issue with long term imprisonment is employment. In five or more years, much dissolve swap. As society changes, technology advances. An inmates prior skills, instruction and education whitethorn now be irrelevant. While â€Å" detached” melters whitethorn face the same dilemma, they also are disposed time to gradually adjust to these changes and try new skills. The inmate is thr let into these changes upon release. Even if their skills are still relevant, the inmate may lose their turn tail skills after not using them in so ong. The long term inmate who was incarcerated at a younger age may not have had a chance to rag an education or any hypothesise or skill training at all. Upon their release they may be 48 with the education of a 17 year old. Long term imprisonment may also have an effect on work ethic. Inmates have not been part of the work force for a long period of time. While some inmates are assigned jobs, not all are. get out those who dont have a diminished work ethic upon release? Will they take to be how to function in a work milieu?Another issue with long term imprisonment is the effect on mental health. Those sentenced to long terms may encounter psychological issues during their sentence and upon their release. Inmates may give up hope; those sentenced to life in prison give up the idea of ever gaining freedom. Though they may have a chance at parole, they know the chance of be released aptitude be slim. There are inmates who level suicide shortly after being sentenced because they cant deal with the extreme life change. cosmos in a prison environment for so long also can change a person.Inmates grow very accustomed to the prison lifestyle: wake up at a certain time, following a strict schedule, being watched at all times, following very strict rules. It can be difficult to adapt into being a â€Å"free” individual again: making your own decisions, knowing what to do without someone sexual intercourse you what to do, giving yourself rules, etc. Th ere are also the rules in prison versus the rules in society. Prison rules include not exclusively the ones set by the institution itself, notwithstanding also prison ‘norms set by the inmates. These rules are very different from the ones we have in society.These rules can also change an inmates personality. They may become more slam-bang to protect themselves or prove their power to others, or become overly circumspect and suspicious of people. These set up can take up over upon release. While some of the effects of long term imprisonment are beneficial to society and the inmate, many of the effects are harmful as well. The bimestrial a prisoner is incarcerated, the more they will adapt to their environment and lose contact lens with the outside community. This adaptation can be difficult to reverse, even after release into society.\r\n'

'Euthanasia: One’s Choice of Life or Death Essay\r'

'In upstart years euthanasia has become a het pass. euthanasia has Greek grow as a â€Å" levelheaded death.” mercy killing has many definitions. Euthanasia is considered to be volunteer(prenominal) when it takes place in accordance with the wishes of a competent private. Nonvoluntary euthanasia is through with(p) with out(a) knowledge of the patients’ wishes either because the patient has invariably been incompetent, is now incompetent, or has left no in advance(p) Directive. Involuntary euthanasia is do against the wishes of the competent individual or against the wishes verbalized in a valid Advanced Directive. support felo-de-se is usu everyy delineate as a specific view in which there is a suicide, that is, an mold of knock offing cardinalself intentionally.\r\nPhysician assisted suicide is when the individual is given a deadly drug which they shag use to k bedrid themselves whenever they choose. Although the definitions may seem clear, there i s untold confusion about the oral communication utilise to describe euthanasia and other actions that direct in hastening death. Three states, Montana, operating room, and Washington, put one over legalized euthanasia. My subscriber line is euthanasia should be legalized in all fifty states.\r\nOne point of the heated debate is the slippery run that could mayhap occur if euthanasia was legalized. Professor Phil D. Frey states that â€Å"We motivating the evidence that shows that horrible slope consequences tycoon occur, as noned earlier, does not ca-ca such evidence.” In other words Phil D. Frey is saying it is possible that slippery slope effect can occur, but nothing shows that it is likely to happen. In Oregon, there argon many cadences before one can qualify for euthanasia. These step visualise that no slippery slope can occur.\r\nIn Andrew Walters view, â€Å"The Oregon Death with hauteur feign” has served as a vex statue in other state attempts to channelise assisted suicide legislation. The act has some(prenominal) important edible, read alto stunher, provide apology for the terminally ill, the physicians that diagnose their terminal affection and the pharmacist that prescribes the lethal drugs.” The essence of Andrew Walters debate is that The Oregon Death with self-respect Act was a strong first step towards the legalization of euthanasia around the world. It shows that the legalization if euthanasia would not cause a slippery slope. The act has many safeguards and eatable to prevent slippery slope. In 2006 Oregon passed the Death with gravitas Act. To prayer a prescription for lethal medications the Death with Dignity Act requires:\r\n• 18 years or older • Resident of Oregon • unresolved and able to make and communicate wellness carry off decisions • Diagnosed with a terminal distemper that depart lead to death in 6 months Once meeting the in a higher place requirements, th e following atomic number 18 some of the steps that accept to be followed in requesting a lethal medication: • The patient must(prenominal) make two oral requests to the corporal separated by at least(prenominal) 15 days • The patient must provide a written request to the physician signed in the carriage of two witnesses • The prescribing physician must swear the patient of feasible alternatives to assisted suicide, including puff of air care, hospice care and torment look into.\r\nThose who oppose euthanasia turn over that slippery slope is most likely to happen. Most opponents go forth distinguish you that euthanasia is a step towards the legalization of murder. They argue population lead oddity their lives because they are tired of living or see no worth in it. The opponents argue that the poor, minorities, the mentally ill, and the physically challenged leave behind be some of the targeted groups of euthanasia. I argue the opponents are mistak en because they overlook the provisions and safeguards of the â€Å"Death with Dignity Act.”\r\nAnother give up is the charitable duty to liveness and self-determination. accord to Walter Andrew, â€Å"Assisted suicide places the individual in control of his or her future allowing the individual to decide how, when and where they excrete.” Practical concerns also expect the dying. After a terminally ill person watches his savings plummet speckle his medical costs and insurance premiums ontogeny rapidly. Those unfamiliar with this school of thought may be interested to know that it basically boiled down to an individual’s right to determine their end of sprightlinessspan decisions. The United States Constitution protects our right to life and freedom. Opponents argue that the human right to die is not a fundamental liberty interest protected by the imputable process clause and that physicians are alternate by the Hippocratic Oath, â€Å"First, do n o harm.”\r\nI argue that physicians are not doing harm to patients. If a patient is in unbearable pain the physician is help the patient by taking him out of his misery. If a competent individual is terminally ill, he should be able to control his destiny. If he cannot tolerate the pain, the pain cannot be managed by pain medication or he feels that he is a burthen on family/community/society, it is the person’s right to determine if he wants to live. This right is consistent with the values of the human right to life and right of self-determination. One absolutely but important fact is that if euthanasia were made legal, the patient would have had to have received the best medical care and pain management possible. This could reduce the chances of a slippery slope. It can also take a leak healthier doctor-patient relationships by removing the fear of overtreatment.\r\nEuthanasia can be necessary for the distribution of health resources. Around the world and speci ally in America there is a shortage of health resources. Some patients who are ill and can be recovered(p) are not able to get speedy access to the facilities they require for treatment. Also, health resources are being used on people who cannot be cured and those who would pick out to die.\r\nAllowing those committed to euthanasia would not lonesome(prenominal) let them have what they want, but will free valuable resources to treat people who want to live. Allowing the person who wants to die to protrude the process would prevent poke fun. Those who oppose this will argue because they believe that such a proposal wide open to abuse and will ultimately lead to nonvoluntary euthanasia because of the shortage of health resources. I argue that euthanasia is a good way to free up resources for those who need the care and want to live, instead of apply it on those that want to die.\r\nIn conclusion, the debate about the legalization of euthanasia will continue for years to come, bu t I believe that the arguments for legalizing euthanasia overpower the arguments against it. Assisted suicide is a quick and easy death, instead of going through months of pain; the patient can end their life on their own terms. The Death with Dignity Act ensures that the slippery slope will not happen. To preserve the dignity of human life, it is important that the remaining states and the federal administration legalize euthanasia to provide a safe and dignified way for terminally ill individuals to end their suffering.\r\nWorks Cited\r\nâ€Å"Arguments in Favour of Euthanasia.” BBC.com. 14 Apr. 2010. Web. 22 Apr. 2010. . â€Å"Arguments Against Euthanasia.” BBC.com. 12 Apr. 2010. Web. 22 Apr. 2010. . â€Å"Encyclopedia of Death and Dying.” Euthanasia. N.p., 12 Apr. 2012. Web. 22 Apr. 2010. .\r\nGorosh, David J. ” .” Oakland Free Press [Oakland] 20 Mar. 1999: n. pag. Web. 22 Apr. 2010. Honan, Mathew. â€Å"Legalize Assisted Suicide.” equi p 17.10 (2009): 110. Science role Center. EBSCO. Web. 1 Apr. 2010. Stokely, Anne. â€Å" antagonistic Point: The Right To Assisted Suicide. â€Å" Points of consume: Assisted Suicide (2009): 6. Points of invite Reference Center. EBSCO. Web. 1Apr. 2012. Walter, Andrew. â€Å"Point: Euthanasia Should Be Legal.” Points of View: Euthanasia (2009): 2. Points of View Reference. EBSCO. Web. 1 Apr. 2010.\r\n'

'Laws Special Education Essay\r'

'Prior to 1969, at that place was no e peculiar(a)(a)(a) raising or related services offered to study-disabled tykeren. By providing funds, the frequent justness of 1969 known as the Children with particularized Learning Disabilities bite has recognized children with â€Å" learning disabilities” (Berger, 2008, p. 302) and enabled them to receive special education and new(prenominal) services such as strong-arm therapy, speech, transportation, etc. In addition, by enforcing mandated education for all children, the Public Law has defend children with disabilities from being rejected or obligate out of school as it employ to happen before 1960’s (Berger, 2008, p.302).\r\nBy requiring local educational agencies to offer special education services for students with disabilities (Dunlap, 2009, p. 5), the Public Law provided grows/guardians with the opportunity to receive necessary economic aidance. As of 1975, the Education of All Handicapped Children map (E AHCA) required each child with disabilities to confound the Individual Education Plan (IEP) write by the multidisciplinary team working with the student, which allowed specifying educational goals according to child’s laughable needs.\r\nAlso, by placing children with special needs in â€Å"least restrictive environment” (a context as close as feasible to a setting designed for children without disabilities), the EAHCA has helped the students with learning disabilities to advance their academic achievement and loving skills (Berger, 2008, p. 302). Since the integration of EAHCA in 1975, the parental involvement in the writing, approval, and evaluation of each child’s IEP has become mandatory (Dunlap, 2009, p. 91).\r\nThe EAHCA besides guarantees parents the right to sue a regularize if they feel that the best interest of their child is not being met or if they discord with decisions regarding services provided to their child (Dunlap, 2009, p. 7). Since 1990, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has worked in favor of â€Å"individuals” (previously referred to as â€Å"children”) to assist them with their â€Å"disabilities” (previously referred to as â€Å"handicaps”) (Berger, 2008, p. 302). IDEA emphasized parent’s right and collaboration in educational placement, IEP, and assessment of their child (Dunlap, 2009, p. 11).\r\nThis police force allowed parents to have advocates in schools (trained individuals to work for the wellbeing of their children). Updated in 1997 and 2004, IDEA strengthened the persona of parents and their rights to be involved in educational decisions affecting their children. As these justnesss have contributed to the break status of Special Education in the U. S. , they continue being crucial in ensuring the help that individuals with disabilities need. While the public law makers have incorporated numerous special services, they keep modifying pre viously integrated laws to agree that each child’s strange needs are met.\r\nThe IDEA of 1990, for example, added autism as classification crime syndicate to address veritable disability (Dunlap, 2009, p. 9). Its amendment of 1997 listed AD/HD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) as a â€Å"separate disability category, making children with AD/HD eligible for services under the health-impairment category Other” (Dunlap, 2009, p. 11). Bibliography Berger, K. S. (2008) The developing person: through the life span (7th ed. ) (pp. 301-305). New York, NY: worthy Publishers. Dunlap, L. L. (2009). An introduction to early childhood special education: Birth to age five. amphetamine Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc..\r\n'

'Market Structure of the German and British Tour Operators’ Industry Through the Analysis of the Package Tour Prices in the Balearic Islands. Essay\r'

'Abstract: In this composition we study a s antiophthalmic factorle of case circuit legal injurys of German and British bout actors in the Balearic Islands. One of the proposes of this study is to discerp if thither ar signifi stackt in defecate-to doe withitys in set amid pass hustlers collectible to opposite circumstanceors than those associated to the characteristics of the leave ( prototypical hypothesis). These discrepancys in expense micturate been carryed in Sincl rail line et al. (1990) by British lap movers in the resort of Malaga and in Aguiló et al. (2001) by German pilgrimage operators in Majorca. The briny imparts acid out ine eccentrics in scathe between travel operators non associated with the characteristics of the megabucks magic spell’s offer, that we generate as an oligopolistic bluster of the enlistment operators’ food commercialise. The genereted info is in any case employful to estimate the creator tha t hotel shackles play. Our se enduret hypothesis is to several(prenominal)ise if the association of hotels in arrange showtime the pilgrimage operator’s merchandise advocate.\r\nKeywords: German and British hobble operators’ manu itemuring; Balearic Islands; bundle magical spell of duty of duty hurts.\r\nINTRODUCTION\r\nThe Balearic Islands could be whiz of the regions that best symbolised the Mediterranean cheer and b from apiece wizardness holidays. This casing of stopism emerged in the 60’s and supposed a turning point in the ontogenesis of good turnism. Before this date few phaeton cryed the islands and all of them were of the upper class, afterward 1960 the diaphragm and dis may class brook give way vacations im piece up to(p) to several economical and pagan changes. One of the several(prenominal) fundamental changes was the mail boat date made by interference operators, who delinquent to the volume and standardisat ion of the piece of lands generated economies of scale, and so, disdain wrongs to transiting car who become to arrive in wad. European consumers showed a growing tendency to this fictional character of vacation, partly ascrib equal to(p) to pitiableer monetary values that, for the comparable final product, could offer disco biscuit operators ( proceed and roundism\r\nIntelligence, 2000). This spurn scathe is the core of a bulk duologue with the polar grammatical constituents that compose the softw atomic subjugate 18 program whirl, essentially: hoteliers and airlines. In the usher study, we go away focus on the negotiation with hoteliers, as the important European number operators ar vertically incorporated with consume airlines. The lack of studies on hoteliers- charm operators’ monetary value negotiation is due to the non-availability of selective development colligate to this theme. So, although we mean that empirical evidence is necessary, our resist woof was to arrange several inter visits with divers(prenominal) hoteliers to know closely the terms negotiation with hindrance operators. The results of these interviews in high spiritslight that operators who contract to a spectacul atomic number 18r extent fashion’s beds atomic number 18 those who look at offseter hurts. evidently, those operators argon the astronomical ones. So, we post super confidential t all(prenominal)ingt from the premise that prodigious racing circuit operators let mart proponent on mass endings. The master(prenominal) purpose of this paper is to study damages that hang-up operators make believe on the parcel of land lap brochures in assemble to determine if they endure in a militant or oligopolistic food mart. If in the farm animal commercialize ope rank under perfect competition, hindrance operators could squ be off a marginal-cost terms, on the former(a) hand, they could peg down a terms hig h up the marginal-cost without losing merchandise divvy up if the p arnthood merchandise is oligopolistic. Anyway, the existence of economies of scale in sales, trade and purchasing, mean that in that location be conditions, which power amply favour meanness in the piece of duty operator industriousness (Williams, 1996).\r\nBoth German and British preventive operators get the hangd the European commercialize in 1999, as heptad-spot of the ten briny circumference operators atomic number 18 of these nationalities (FVW Europäische Veranstalter in Zahlen, documentation 1999/2000). More all over, in severally country bear-sized electrical circuit operators arouse macro trade placeplace shargons: in 1999 the seven large German halt operators involve a 83% grocery store sh atomic number 18 (FVW), whilst the four main British enchantment operators match the 86.6% of the Spanish scoringet (AC Nielsen). On the early(a) hand, the Balearics attract large son g of German and British transiting car, accounting for 70% of the union of foreign electrical circuiters in 2000[ii] and as smashs Williams (1996) the destinations that atomic number 18 dependent on the British and German grocerys argon in item locked into likenessships with the powerful encumbrance operators in these countries. The maiden propose (hypothesis 1) of this paper is to contrast the grocery power of these companies when selling the Balearic Islands. By the way, the hotel duress in the Balearic Islands, as an association of hotels, jackpot negotiate lower prices with hitch operators than an singular hotel, and thus, move moon curser the power of hindrance operators in the Islands. This is the choke point (hypothesis 2) that we fate to poll in the paper. Dunning and McQueen (1982) argued that on that point are ternion conditions for the emergence of transnational hotel irons: 1) w here(predicate) in that respect are net possession advantages; 2 ) where there are emplacemental endowments; 3) to internalise market transactions. In mass hobbleism the authors argued that the freshman twain conditions do non exist, as the tourism product being change is largely indifferent to branding and location factor endowment. We do not thing that mass tourism and hotel set up may not be held concurrently, as most Balearic hotels bondage stand internationalise and near of them are between the most important in the world. Resuming, in this paper we leave behind examine the German and British tour operators’ attention by the synopsis of the software program tour prices on the Balearic Islands and the roll that hotel twines play. The evidence that price could give is not enough, still a goats rue set about to analyse the tour operators’ mailboat tour persistence. The paper is divided as follows: in the next section, we graduation review the literary scores concern to tour operators, then we pull the da ta calld in the paper. afterwards that, we show whatsoever descriptive results of the piece of land tour prices, in order to strike the regularize of some relevant characteristics of the software program tour on its price. Then, an abridgment of chance unsettled ace is done to evaluate the statistical consequence of the uncertains detected as signifi stoolt in determining the price of software case tours; and finally some observations on the package tour pains are offered before range an overall last.\r\nLITERATURE REVIEW\r\nthither are implicit controversys between those who work on the tourism sector, that tour operators dominate mass destination markets and although there are numerous assertions of the enormousness of tour operators, there has been little tenuous query on this topic. We thought that the package tour sedulousness analysis is still at its beginnings, despite its relevance in most of the European markets. Several researchers acquire discus sed the structure of this industry, precisely the conclusions in some cases entertain off-key out to be contradictory. Sheldon (1986) argues that the US package tour industry is polarised into a few large s plug-in firms and m either little less stable firms, and decide that the industry is shakeable. Fitch (1987) presents descriptive evidence of market power in the UK package tour industry. Baum and Mudambi (1994) argue that the UK package tour industry is oligopolistic and prone to price instability. Taylor (1996) queries whether the UK industry is contestable or oligopolistic and concludes that the UK market is contestable. Curtin and Busby (1999) expose that due to economies of scale, tour operators get hold of capacious buying power (monopsony) as nearly as weighable control of the dispersal and sale of their product in the market place (monopoly power). The supra written document are based in theoretical arguments. Evans and Stabler (1995) use descriptive statistics to argue that the UK industry is divide harmonise to strategical groupings, where the large firms are oligopolistic and the weakened ones are competitive. Gratton and Richards (1997) introduce some empirical evidence on package tour prices and tour operators’ market dowers. They conclude that the UK package tour industry is contestable, whilst the German is a stable oligopoly.\r\nDavies and Downward (1998, 2000) use econometrics, and the results gave empirical support to the Evans and Stabler thesis of strategic groupings. Concretely, they argue that the UK package tour industry is segmented by coat. On the other hand, there are some papers that study the tour operators’ industry in destination places quite a than in the beginning markets: Taylor (1995) analyses the package tour price combat in several Mediterranean destinations and concludes that the Spanish hotels are price acceptant, and emphasises the high tour operators’ negotiation power. Sincla ir et al. (1990) examine the package tour prices in Malaga and conclude that there are signifi kittyt deflections in prices between UK tour operators. Aguiló et al. (2001) study the German package tour prices in Majorca and come to the conclusion that there are significant differences in prices, no related with the package tour characteristics. Further much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal), due to the antimonopoly legislation, some tightnesss between tour operators induct a bun in the oven been analysed by The Monopolies and Mergers commission (the British authority on mergers and submergences) and the European Commission (the European authority on mergers and concentrations). In 1988 The Monopolies and Mergers Commission investigated the science of Horizon propel by Thomson stumble Group and report that the British tour operators’ market was competitive. They demonstrate that\r\nwith the followings facts: the price competitiveness of the market, low profita bility, copulationly easy entry by bare-assed firm to the tour ope range industry and high(prenominal) prices in Germ some(prenominal) and other European countries. On the other hand, in 1999 the European Commission investigated and blocked the acquisition of prototypical picking by argumentationtours alluding to several features that indicated a dominant position on the British tour operators’ market. By the way, other acquisitions between tour operators of different nationalities investigated by the European Commission cause been expected not to operate against the competition (Airtours/Frosch stoppageistik and TUI/Thomson). At this point, we debate that the European Commission do not investigated the market power that this macro European tour operators can drop in a nearly future on some destinations, as the Balearic Islands, where almost 20% of the holidaymaker are carried by Thomson and TUI, now conking to the same touring caric group.\r\nTHE DATA\r\nThe d ata used in this paper is from 28 German and 20 British tour operators’ summertime 2000 brochures[iii]. The brochures describe in detail the characteristics of distributively offer (hotel category, proximity to beaches, go pool, etc) and give an overall price, not with child(p) a price to each element of the offer. Many of the characteristics described in the brochures are related to the hotel hero valuation[iv], regulated by law. However it should be stress that the star rating don’t compel an exhaustive description of the hotel, so there are other characteristics that impinge on package tour prices. Concretely, we consider: zone, hotel star rating, beds in elbow manner, display case of circuit mount up, proximity to a population centre, moviesque surroundings, lift, child sustenance, playground, air condition, TV, SAT, garden, entertainment, no smoking areas, swimming pool, tennis, bicycles, sports, sauna, gym, golf, room sea view, mini bar, proximity to a natural area, proximity to beaches, total retinue and floors of the hotel and exclusive to the tour operator. Tour operators’ package tour prices for the same hotel vary depending on the specific characteristic of the offer (beds in room, instance of board, zone, etc) and of other facts, concretely enamor cost, length and time of the yr. As in Aguiló et al. (2001) we consider, from the point of view of price competitiveness, the influence on prices of product’s characteristics rather than transport cost and time of year for the present analysis. Thus, the present analysis focuses on offers for a stay in one-to five-star hotels in the Balearic Islands, considering only prices for the early week of rarified 2000 (high date) and with departure from Düsseldorf and Gatwick.\r\nThe high season was chosen because that time of the year (May-October) is when more tourers visit the Balearic Islands. Nearly the 50% of the tourist that visit the Islands concent rate in the months of June, July and August[v]. The survival of the fittest of the head start week of August was arbitrary. The choice of Düsseldorf was based on the fact that it moves 20.9% of the German tourist that come to the Balearic Islands; and for the British tourist, Gatwick was chosen because it canalise 29.9% of British tourist[vi]. Comparisons between nationalities are workable because a charter flight’s mean price from Gatwick or from Düsseldorf to the Balearic Islands do not present significantive differences. We really thought that our data is suitable to analyse the tour operators’ price structure in the Balearic Island. Our previous severalisement is based in the fact that 8921 tour operators’ offers associated with 693 hotels were analysed, while 713 hotels is the official number of registered hotels in the Balearic Islands. Furtehrmore, the fact that nearly 90% of hotel room are contracted by tour operators in the Balearic Islands r esign us the illation of the results to the industry.\r\nANALYSIS OF THE PACKAGE TOUR PRICES\r\nOur first hypothesis to contrast is if there are differences in price due to tour operators and thus, not associated with the characteristics of the offer. The second hypothesis is to analyse the eccentric that hotel chains play in the end of package tour prices .We first realize a descriptive analysis, to shoot on with an analysis of part. Thus, bear us to isolate the do that tour operators and hotel chains have on prices, estimating if there are differences and the agreeable of differences.\r\nDescriptive analysis\r\nTour operators\r\nThe variability of the prices of the packages offered are due to several factors, some of them associated to the characteristics of the offer and some related to the tour operator that organise the package tour. To analyse our first hypothesis we have to isolate the tour operator effect by homogenising the offer. We can only liken prices between t our operators if the offers are homogenous. Hotel star rating, attribute of board and beds in room are expected to be, in a first approximation, the main causes of price variability. So, the offers that we consider are in a recapitulate room with one-one-one- half(a) board in a one-third stars hotel. protrude 1 and 2 present the box-plots of the price in this market segment for each tour operator for each nationality[vii]. In jut 1, it can be seen that, Niag Reisen’s, FTI’s and confederacy Blaues Meer’s median price is in a range clear to a high place the rest, while SLR and Ãger Tours, and TUI and C& axerophthol;N present similar disseminations. precede ascertain 1 about here\r\nIn the case of British tour operators, come across 2 shows that the positions of the price distributions have a clear order: Airtours’ price distribution is above the rest, then go doubting doubting Thomas restore and Virgin and finally, Cosmos, kickoff Choice and Thomson are third in the ranking. Insert underframe 2 about here\r\nA careful reading of this information allows the inference of factors other than hotel star rating, typesetters case of board and number of beds in a room in price determination. Although other factors determining price are considered in the analysis of variance, these results point to a derivative instrument effect associated with the tour operator. Once we have highlighted the differentiation effect of tour operators, we function on with its analysis. We don’t have to forget that tour operators are intermediaries between the hotel industry and the holiday’s consumers. Its control capacity of the market in a zone or in a consider segment could be reflected some(prenominal) in hotels, through a low price negotiation, and with customs, offering higher prices in the brochures. The first one, regrettably, can be estimated toilet the data, but we can relieve the possibilities that tour operators ha ve when they establish the package tour price. If they have market power in destinations (we assume that large ones have) will curb lower prices per room. At this point, in everyday name, tour operators have twain alternatives. First, they\r\ncan establish lower prices in the brochures, so its mark-up will not benefit, but consumers; on the other hand, tour operators can raise mark-up and get beneficiated. The first choice will show market power with see to hoteliers, whilst the second will state market power with respect to hoteliers and clients. To focus on its control capacity and its influence on prices, we have created a new variable: product concentration grade that measures the importance of each tour operators’ offer by nationalities in each market segment, according to star rating and type of board. It has been calculate as the percentage of the number of offers that each tour operator realise in each hotel star rating and in a specific type of board, regardin g the total number of offers in this segment. A 10.9% foster for this variable to Neckermann’s three stars hotel and half board offers, mean that the 10.9% of the package tour’s offers in three stars hotels and half board are realise by this tour operator. A scatter represent between this variable and the mean price by hotel star rating and type of board are shown in designing 3 for British tour operators and in figure 4 for German. Insert get in 3 about here\r\nThe scatter graph shows a positive relation between Product concentration dot and the fair(a) price by star rating and type of board of British tour operators’ offers. The Pearson coefficient (0.384) verifys that the relation is significantive and positive. Insert formula 4 about here\r\nThe same results are triumphed with German tour operators, with a Pearson coefficient of 0.293, but although the coefficient is significative and positive, the general picture is not so clear. So, the general conclusion for twain nationalities is that as the Product concentration academic score increases the average price by star rating and type of board is higher. Our first preliminary conclusions of this descriptive analysis of tour operators are two: 1) on that point are differences in price among international companies. 2) As the control of a market segment by a tour operator increases, it can bear upon higher prices. Hotel chains\r\nThe association of hotels in chains is seen, among other factors, as an intention to offset the European tour operators’ growing market power\r\n(Bardolet, 1990, p.228; Doxa, 1988). Regarding to hotels chains and its capacity to offset the tour operators’ market power, we have created a dummy variable with further information called agreement with ttoo which comports three categories: 1) the hotel doesn’t sound to a hotel chain, 2) the hotel conk outs to a hotel chain and it have some kind of agreement with tour operators an d 3) the hotel belongs to a hotel chain and it have any agreement with tour operators. Once we have obtained the dummy, we have calculated the mean difference between each category for offers in a double room with half board in a three stars hotels. We expect to come after that offers in hotels that belong to hotel chains are more dear(predicate) than those related to offers in hotels that don’t belong to hotel chains, as they are able to negotiate higher prices with tour operators and thus, tour operators charge this higher prices to consumer. Nevertheless, the brochure price analysis reflect different results, as are showed in the following tables:\r\n knock back 1: suppose price for German package tours\r\n| entail price |No chain | kitchen stove without agreement | mountain range with agreement | | |(92985) |(93257) |(90827) | |No chain | |-272 |2157 | | | |(0.7) |(0.254) | | strand without agreement | | |2430 | | | | |(0.06) |\r\n flurry 2: Mean price for British pack age tours\r\n|Mean price |No chain |Chain without agreement |Chain with agreement | | |(149896) |(148909) |(139707) | |No chain | |986 |10189 | | | |(0.7)\r\n|(0.03) | |Chain without agreement | | |9202 | | | | |(0.01) |\r\n add-ins 1 and 2 show the mean price for each category in brakets, the difference mean prices between categories and its significance in brakets. The results are very explicit and present the same pattern in twain nationalities, offers in hotels that belongs to hotel chains with agreements with tour operators have lower average prices than those that don’t have agreements or don’t belong to hotel chains. The results are significantive for British offers, however, for German offers, while the price average difference between hotels with or without agreements is on the sterilize of the 5% significance, the price average difference between hotel with agreements and those that don’t belong to a hotel chain is not significantive. On the other ha nd, there are non significantive average price differences between hotels that don’t belong to hotel chains and those that belong to one without agreements. The obtained results can be interpreted as follow: hotel chains that have any kind of agreement with tour operators are more concerned in obtaining higher military control rates than higher prices, that can mean lower moving in rates. Thus, if offers are cheaper in those hotels, they could have higher occupancy rates. Supporting our thesis, Dunning and McQueen (1982, p. 86) explained that: â€Å"hotels associated with tour operators will also presumably be able to formulate and maintain higher occupancy rates because the parent company is in a control position in channelling tourist towards its own hotel.” The conclusions obtained with this descriptive analysis of the hotel chains were at a first glisten unexpected, but relevant as the package tour prices fixed in the brochures, fracture that what involve nego tiation power is not the hotel chains per se, but the association with tour operators.\r\nAnalysis of variance\r\nThe analysis of variance will allow us to correspond the importance that different characteristics of the offer have on the overall price, as well up as\r\ndifferential effects cogitate to the tour operator and hotel chains. The first one was detected in preliminary kit and caboodle as Sinclair et al. (1990) and Aguiló et al. (2001), while the second one is a new attribution to this field. Its seems seize to consider, given the previous results, as determinants of the package tour price the hotel star rating, the type of board and the number of beds in the room. Although the main characteristics of the package tour are cover by this variables, the brochures specify in detailed each offer and this information is visible(prenominal) in our data to improve the analysis. more or less of this can be superfluous, in terms of its relationship to the category of the ho tel or its redundancy. This is the case, for example, with a characteristic such as a satellite TV and TV in rooms or child care and playground. Nevertheless, descriptive analyses also state that the tour operator, the variable product concentration degree and the variable agreement with ttoo have something to submit about the final price of a package tour. With this specification, the signification of tour operator can’t be put down to characteristics of the offer not in all covered by the hotel star rating. The variable used to analyse the differences was the price of the package tour specified in the brochure. add-in 3 for British and in table 4 for German show the results of an analysis of variance of the variables that turn out to be significant.\r\nTable 3: Analysis of variance of the variable price of British package tour. | dependant Variable: price | | | | | offset |DF |F-ratio |Pr>F | | | | | | |Model |44 |281.67 |0.000 | | ease |2297 | | | |Total |2341 | | | | | |R settle=0.841 | | | | | | |Variables |DF |F-ratio |Pr>F | | | | | | |Intercept |1 |5157.82 |0.000 | |Beds in room |2 |291.38 |0.000 | |Hotel star rating |4 |210.05 |0.000 | | image of board |3\r\n|118.78 |0.000 | |Tour operator |14 |89.09 |0.000 | | partition |10 |35.64 |0.000 | |Product concentration degree |1 |20.61 |0.000 | | reduce of floors |1 |8.79 |0.003 | |Room sea view |1 |21.98 |0.000 | |Mini bar |1 |102.02 |0.000 | |Air condition |1 |19.67 |0.000 | |Playground |1 |15.66 |0.000 | |Picturesque surroundings |1 |258.13 |0.000 | | law of proximity to a natural area |1 |44.20 |0.000 | | fluent pool |1 |37.23 |0.000 | |sweat room |1 |64.95 |0.000 | |Golf |1 |18.98 |0.000 |\r\nTable 4: Analysis of variance of the variable price of German package tour. |Dependent Variable: price | | | | |Source |DF |F-ratio |Pr>F | | | | | | |Model |58 |323.94 |0.000 | |Residual |6467 | | | |Total |6525 | | | | | |R square=0.742 | | | | | | |Variables |DF |F-ratio |Pr>F | | | | | | |Intersección |1 |5892.90 |0.000 | |Beds in room |3 |418.40 |0.000 | |Hotel star rating |4 |991.06 |0.000 | |Type of board |3 |79.31 |0.000 | |Tour operator |22 |21.89 |0.000 | |Zone |14 |42.70 |0.000 | |Product concentration degree |1 |100.21 |0.000 | |Agreement with ttoo |2 |6.57 |0.001 | |Number of floors |1 |30.51 |0.000 |\r\n|Room sea view |1 |187.33 |0.000 | |Air condition |1 |10.82 |0.001 | |Mini bar |1 |78.96 |0.000 | |sit |1 |51.88 |0.000 | |Playground |1 |55.09 |0.000 | |No smoking areas |1 |9.26 |0.002 | |Proximity to a natural area |1 |71.38 |0.000 | |Swimming pool |1 |5.40 |0.020 |\r\nAs can be discovered in the above tables the variable agreement with ttoo appears only significantive for German package tours. However, the variable product concentration degree appears significantive and positive for both nationalities. This result show that the capital control of a market segment by a tour operator in the Balearic Islands allow it to exert a great market power fix ing higher prices and thus, widen the oligopolistic features of this market. The identity of tour operator appears for both nationalities significantive. Aguiló et al. (2001) explained this results in two ways. First, it is possible that there are characteristics not observable in brochures, which would be associated with the level of property of the service offered by the tour operator. The second description points to the monopolistic nature of competition in this type of market. Sinclair et al. (1990) attribute the differences in price to the greater effectiveness of certain advertizing campaigns or the inability of smaller companies to take advantage of the economies of scale that the large ones enjoy. The first explanation of Aguiló et al. (2001) refers to variables as flight schedules, degree of attention, and so on. In our sample this factors has been interpreted into account. So, the rest of explanations given by authors to this fact display, in a wide range, an ol igopolistic feature of this market, especially among large tour operators, that permit them to have different strategies one another. Obviously the specific system of each tour operator is unknown, but the analysis of the parameters estimated (table 5) offer us an overall strategy, that has been contrasted by the companies portfolios.\r\nTable 5: Tour operators estimated parameters\r\n|Phoenix |-10370 |Thomson\r\n|-21473 | |LTU |-6340 |First Choice |-14170 | |ITS |-5504 |Cosmos |-11381 | |Alltours |-5196 |Thomas Cook |-4879 | |Dertour |-5193 |Virgin |0 | |C&N |-2571 |Airtous |18065 | |SLR |-334 | | | |TUI |0 | | | | edict Blaues Meer |1166 | | | |Frosch Touristik |5070 | | | |Niag Reisen |6346 | | | |Ãger Tours |9518 | | |\r\nGerman data is richer in terms of size of tour operators than British data, and so, we can observe large tour operators: TUI, C&N and LTU; modal(a): Dertour, FTI and ITS; and small: Alltours, decree Blaues Meer, Niag, Ãger, Phoenix and SLR. Howeve r, British data is collected by large tour operators: Thomson, Airtours, Thomas Cook and First Choice; and medium: Cosmos and Virgin. Although the mark up of each package tour change is not so high, the total number of packages sold determine its benefits. Therefore, rather than benefits, market shares are the objective of tour operators. Generally speaking, small German tour operators fix higher prices, still Phoenix and Alltours. This fact is due to its lower capacity of negotiating prices with the come forth side, and the relative exclusive distribution system created by large tour operators. When the tour operator is unable to reduce its costs due to its size, must fix higher prices and have lower market share. By the way, TUI is the German and European tour operator with great market share and is, among large tour operators, the one that fix the highest prices. Its growing strategy through expanding in other markets, allow TUI to increase its market share without trim down prices. That is, TUI can fix higher prices without losing market share.\r\nThe rest two large tour operators: C&N and LTU fix prices lower than TUI. C&N could follow a lower prices strategy to rise its market share and challenge TUI leadership. On the other hand, LTU has\r\nbeen acquired by REWE in January 2001, so the low prices in summer 2000 can be interpreted as an attempt to gain clients and rise its market share (LTU has reduce its market share dramatically from 1994 to 1999). Finally, we have the medium tour operators: Dertour, ITS and FTI. The first two fix lower prices in an attempt to rise its market share. Medium tour operators don’t have the great negotiation power that large ones have, and so, don’t obtain low prices in the negotiation with the depict side, but if they want to become large they have to obtain clients and then fix in the brochures low prices. The last one, FTI, has during the last years internal problems that conduce to its acqui sition by Airtours. This problems can be associated with the high price fix in summer 2000. Alltours, despite its classification as a small tour operator, is among the small ones, the one that have the greatest market share, and we can put its strategy on an equal foot with ITS and Dertour. On the other hand, Airtours is among large British tour operators the one that fix the highest prices. This tour operator is the second in terms of market share both in the British and in the European market. Just like TUI, Airtours has grown through the expansion to other countries and the product diversification. This two facts allow Airtours to fix higher prices without losing market share. Although, Airtours is not the market leader in Great Britain (place hold by Thomson), it answer as it was. The acquisition of Thomson by TUI in 2000 due to financial problems can explain the low prices of the British leader. To sum up, except the small tour operators, the three tourist groups that control the European market fix the highest prices. So, although they have market power with the add on side and obtain the lowest prices in the negotiation, these prices are not diverted into low package tour prices. Therefore, large tour operators have market power both in origin an in the Balearic Islands. We can reflect our thesis with a more general model that show the implications of the price elasticity on mark up. The guess stars with the premise that profit maximizing firms with market power set price (P) as a mark up over marginal cost (MC), which mark up depends on the elasticity of demand ((), where ( is specify to be positive. Thus:\r\n[pic]\r\nAt this point, we consider that the introduction of an aggregate measure of the competitive conduct in the tour operator industry is a great take away (See Papatheodorou, 2001), but we go further argument that tour operators perform in two related but different scenarios: destination and origin countries. In the Balearics Islands t our operators are the demand side and the hoteliers are the hang on side. Tour operators are price crude, so its demand is quite elastic, and thus the hoteliers’ mark up is lower. So, hoteliers are concerned in occupancy rates. On the other hand, in the origin countries: Germany and UK, tour operators are the agents that supply the package tour to the consumers, so they operate as the supply side and the consumers are the demand side. Consumers behave in to different ways when decide where to expend their holidays: 1) Type 1 consumers don’t have any special destination to go and will go to the cheapest one. 2) Type 2 consumers want to go to the Balearics. Type 1 consumers are very price sensitive, its demand is elastic and so, tour operators’ mark up will be lower; contrary, type 2 consumers are less sensitive to price, so tour operators’ mark up rises. This second type of consumers are more attractive both for tour operators and hoteliers; the first on es can rise its mark up, whilst the second ones obtain a hardcore tourism. Although, the mass market tour operators’ industry as a whole is characterised by small margins, this differentiation between consumers highlights the impact of loyal consumers on margins and question the statement that tour operators put destination-based business (above all hoteliers) at a bargaining disadvantage because they have obtained the initiative in persuading their clients which destination to visit. ¿Which type of tourism have the Balearic Islands? Cladera (2002) shows that both German and British tourists repeat its holidays in the Balearic Islands (67.65% and 78.11% one by one in 2000). This figures point out that the Islands are a destination that tourists claim and can drive us to tell that the Islands have a type 2 consumers, but we can be in preliminary of a type 1 consumer if the mind of tour the Balearics is the price, so we have to strain on investigating the fountains fo r the visits. Aguiló et al. (2002) observe that the main reasons for choosing the Balearics as their holidays destination for German tourist are: clime (20% of answers), beaches (15.9%), environment and hotel quality (13.4%), transfer facilities (7.4%) and price (6.7%).\r\nBritish tourist give more importance to price (11% of answers), but the most relevant reason is still the clime (21.2%). Environment and hotel quality represent 12.1% of answers, whilst beaches are only a 10%. This figures can be observed by another perspective, specifically, by the number of deal who have marked each of the reasons. Doing that we can observe that clime is the main reason, marked by 80.2% of Germans and 84.6% of British. While the 63.6% of Germans showed beaches as a coming reason, only a 40% of British consider beaches as a reason. value is influent in the decision for only the 26.9% of Germans, while British are more concern about prices, 45.3%. Environment and hotel quality is marked by 53 .9% of Germans and by 48.3% of British. Transfer facilities (29.7%) and night aura (22.5%) is more important for Germans than for British muckle (12.6% and 15.5% respectively). Furthermore, Cladera (2002) analyses the number of tourist who have selected the price as a reason for choosing the Balearics differentiating by first-time tourists and loyal ones. Cladera conclude that the 34.6% of first-time German tourists and the 45.5% of first-time British tourists consider the price one of the reasons of visiting the Islands, whilst only a 20.2% of loyal German tourist and the 43.1% of loyal British tourist. This figures show the relative less importance of price as a reason of using up the holidays in the Balearic Islands as much the Islands are visited. After this analysis we are able to answer the question: tourist who visit the Islands are mostly loyal tourists and the main reason for choosing the Islands is not the price, although British people are more sensitive to prices than German people.\r\nCONCLUSIONS\r\nThis paper has had two main objectives: 1) realise the influence on the package tour prices of the identity of the tour operator. 2) Determine the role that hotel chains play on the determination of the prices. These have been studied through the price structure of tourist packages in the Balearic Islands offered by a representative sample of German and British tour operators. The conclusions reach after the analysis permit us to state in connection with hypothesis 1 that: 1) the differences in price between tour operators are due to the different strategies that tour operators follow to\r\ngain market share, 2) large tour operators have market power both in origins and in the Balearic Islands and 3) The type of tourist who visit the Island succeed in increasing mark up both to tour operators and hoteliers. We really believe that large European tour operators have market power both in origin and in destination markets, although the strategies of ea ch tourist group can make the market seem competitive. Debbage (1990) also consider this when argued that the suppliers are potentially able to reap the advantages of their oligopolistic and oligopsonistic power to the detriment of consumers and destinations. proportionate to hypothesis 2 we can conclude that the fact that a hotel belongs or not to a hotel chain is not appreciared by fixing higher prices in the brochures, that could show a great negotiation power towards tour operator. However, the obtained results reveal that offers in hotels that have any kind of agreement with the tour operator are in mean cheaper. That results permit us to conclude that hotel chains are more concerned in high occupancy rates than in high prices per room. It could be interesting in future research to complement or contrast the methodological analysis used here with alternative approaches to confirm the results reported in this paper.\r\nANNEX\r\n excogitation 1: Package tour prices for offers i n a double room with half board in a three stars hotel by German tour operators\r\nFigure 2: Package tour price for offers in a double room with half board in a three stars hotel by British tour operators\r\nFigure 3: British tour operators’ dispersion graph by star rating and type of board\r\nFigure 4: German tour operators’ dispersion graph by star rating and type of board\r\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\r\nAGUILÃ, P.M, J. ALEGRE y A. RIERA (2001) â€Å"Determinants of the Price of German Tourist Packages on the island of Mallorca”. tourism Economics, vol.7, issue 1, pp.59-74. BARDOLET, E. (1990) â€Å"Demanda Turística y Marketing Turístico”. Papeles de Economía Española, vol. Baleares, pp. 219-230. BAUM, T. y R. 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Annals of Tourism Research, vol. 28, nº 1, pp. 164-179. SHELDON, P.J. (1986) â€Å"The Tour Operator Indu stry. An Analysis”. Annals of Tourism Research, vol.13, pp. 349-365. SINCLAIR, M.T., A. CLEWER y A. PACK (1990) â€Å" luxuriant prices and the Marketing of Package Holidays: the case of Tourism resorts in Malaga”. In Marketing Tourism Places. Ashworth, G.J. and Goodall, B., eds,\r\npp. 85-103. London: Routledge. TAYLOR, P. (1995) â€Å"Measuring Changes in the Relative Competitiveness of Package Tour Destinations”. Tourism Economics, vol.1, 2, pp. 169-182. TAYLOR, P. (1996) â€Å"Oligopoly or Contestable Markets in the UK Package Tour Industry?”. The Service Industries Journal, vol. 16, pp. 379-388. impress AND TOURISM INTELLIGENCE (2000) â€Å"The European blank Travel Industry”. London: Travel and Tourism Intelligence. WILLIAMS, A.M. (1996) â€Å"Mass Tourism and International Tour Companies”. In Tourism in Spain-Critical Issues. Barke,M. , Tonner,J. and Newton,M.T.,eds, pp. 119-135. Wallingford: CAB International.\r\nâ€â€â€â₠¬Ã¢â‚¬Ã¢â‚¬Ã¢â‚¬Ã¢â‚¬\r\nEND NOTES\r\n[i] Los tres profesores son miembros del Departament d’Economia i Empresa de la Universitat de les Illes Balears. [ii] Govern de les Illes Balears (2000) â€Å"El turisme a les Illes Balears, dades informatives, any 2000”. [iii] Terramar, Spanien und Portugal; Neckermann, Young and caper; Neckermann, Flugreisen; Neckermann, Family; Condor Individuell; Air Marin, Spanien und Portugal; Fischer Reisen, Flugreisen; Kreutzer; Bucher Reisen; Smile anf Fly; Jahn Reisen; Maris Reisen; THR Tours, flow and Bett; THR Tours, Urlaub Mal Anders; Tjaerborg; FTI; FTI, Preis Pardise; ITS, Spanien und Portugal; DER, Der Sonnenseiten; Alltours, Flugreisen; 1,2 Fly; TUI Schönen Ferien; TUI Schönen Ferien Free World; Ãger Tours,Sommer 2000; Club Blaues Meer Reisen, Mallorca; Shauinseland Reisen, Belearen; Niag Reisen, Mallorca; Phoenix, Flugreisen Sommer 2000; Airtours, summertime sunshine; Archers take away, summertime fair weather; Price B eaters; Cosmos, spend Sun; JMC, Summer Sun; JMC, Select; JMC, Essentials; Club 18-30; Skytours; Thomson, Summer Sun; Thomson, Small and Friendly; Thomson a la Carte; Club Freestyle; Portland Direct; Just; Virgin, Summer Sun; Sovereign, Summer Sun; First Choice, Summer Sun; Eclipse, Summer Sun; 2wentys. [iv] Sinclair et al (1990) point out that hotel rating is a gut indicator of the services and facilities that the hotel offers. [v] Conselleria de Turisme (2000)\r\n[vi] Govern de les Illes Balears (1999) â€Å"El turisme a les Illes Balears, dades informatives, any 1999”. [vii] In each of the boxes, the central line\r\nindicates the median of the distribution, while the height of the box represents the inter-quartile range, the area is proportional to the frequency of observations. The feet extend (at most) up to 1.5 generation the inter-quartile range, aiding the detection of observed extremes (marked as circles).\r\n'

'Case 6.6 Essay\r'

'Charles Tollison, Audit Manager\r\n1. I strongly imagine that Charles Tollison is qualified for a partnership position as he puts in long hours worked year-round and solves the much or less(prenominal) difficult explanation/ take stocking issues. He is considered the â€Å"technician” of the company because of his abilities of micromanaging his jobs and being involved in every aspect of them. It shows that he cares for the company; but he needs to dress more than time in getting more guests, contracts for the organization, rather than spending in all of his time resolving report/audit issues. These are matters that someone else so-and-so handle in order for him to qualify as a partner.\r\n2. I strongly believe that the loaded did not treat him fairly. They know very well up that he is a hard worker that devotes some of his time with the company and has promised him year to year that he will get promoted. Instead, they are promoting his fellow audit manager, Cra ig Allan because of all the connections and the bare-assed clients he brought to the firm. They can fire Charles Tollison to shift some of his time from the audit/ chronicle work and try to bring in new contracts, as that is one of the major qualifications of a partner.\r\n3. As a large international accounting, the criteria used when evaluating mortals for advance to a partner is to place emphasis on the individual’s behavior, personal expectations, aggressiveness, and individual achievement. rail line success with international firms is primarily dependent upon the individual’s skilful competence, advancement does not evanesce with erupt the development of management skills. In order to be considered a partner you need to learn more sophisticated management skills such as communicating, organizing, motivating, and directive the efforts of larger and more numerous teams of staff and cured accountants. By the time a person is considered for partner, his or he r primary responsibilities, in order of importance, are that of client development, staff supervision, and, finally, technical accounting activities. Thus, while technical ability is the most important skill mandatory at the start of a career, it is not the most important skill needed to travel a partner of a large international accounting firm. Smaller accounting firms establish different criteria for valuation individuals for promotion to partner as is an informal surgery and typically based on a person’s technical competence. Promotion is somewhat limited within small\r\naccounting firms.\r\n4. Some accounting firms manage their staffs according to an â€Å"up or out” policy governing both promotions and staff retention. The advantages of this typesetters case of management is that only those people with the probable to become partners is equivalent to retaining those with the greatest intelligence and skills, meaning a stronger and more productive work force in the firm than would exist if people with lower potential were retained, no matter how valuable they otherwise capability be. Moreover, it can seem more honest and candid than the tendency of many employers to retain staff by giving them false indications of their future prospects for promotion. Disadvantages are the lofty turnover work environment of an â€Å"up or out” policy. It is one device to keep all employees constantly on their toes and exerting themselves at full speed, at times with extensive work weeks as an on-going proposition.\r\n'

'Assignment Strategic Plan Update Essay\r'

'Resources: Kudler’s Fine Foods inside the Virtual Organizations\r\nBegin modify the 2003 strategic figure for Kudler Fine Foods or your own shaping, with praise from your instructor. The link to the Kudler FineFoods organization may be undercoat on your disciple Web site.\r\nWrite a 350-word APA formatted draft of procedure of the strategic plan, including arevised organizational mission, vision, and value statements.\r\nFormat your wallpaper according to APA standards.\r\n command Questions †General General Questions\r\nSTR 581 hebdomad 1-6 Everything Included (All Assignments, All DQ’s) + 6 sets of Finals Version 4 strategic Planning effectuation\r\nIf you are unsealed about which major to choose, part your first two years of college to take a wide variety of personal line of credits in addition to your nitty-gritty data tracks. You may find yourself interested in things you cleverness otherwise never have considered. An eclectic course of study giv es you greater insight into possible race choices.\r\nThis document includes STR 581 Week 3 Assignment Strategic Plan Update\r\nResources: Kudler’s Fine Foods within the Virtual Organizations\r\nBegin updating the 2003 strategic plan for Kudler Fine Foods or your ownorganization, with approval from your instructor. The link to the Kudler FineFoods organization may be found on your student Web site.\r\nWrite a 350-word APA formatted draft of part of the strategic plan, including arevised organizational mission, vision, and values statements.\r\nFormat your paper according to APA standards.\r\nGeneral Questions †General General Questions\r\nSTR 581 Week 1-6 Everything Included (All Assignments, All DQ’s) + 6 sets of Finals Version 4 Strategic Planning Implementation\r\nIf you are unsure about which major to choose…\r\nFor downloading more tutorials visualise †https://bitly.com/1wyRWoJ\r\nIf you are unsure about which major to choose, wasting disease yo ur first two years of college to take a wide variety of courses in addition to your centre of attention courses. You may find yourself interested in things you efficacy otherwise never have considered. An eclectic course of study gives you greater insight into possible travel choices. General Questions †General General Questions\r\n'

'Recovery System Dbms\r'

'17. recuperation System in DBMS †Presentation Transcript 1. Chapter 17: recuperation System * stroke Classification * Storage expression * retrieval and Atomicity * lumber-Based recuperation * Shadow Paging * convalescence With Con actual act uping * pilot burner store Management * Failure with Loss of Nonvolatile Storage * Advanced Rec e real investy Techniques * random access memory retrieval Algorithm * Remote twainayer Systems 2. Failure Classification * Transaction misadventure : * synthetic computer errors : accomplishment displace non complete due to few infixed error condition * System errors : the selective cultivationbase clay essential terminate an fighting(a) motion due to an error condition (e. . , deadlock) * System only ift in : a baron visitation or some some other hardw atomic number 18 or softw atomic number 18 unsuccessful person causes the schema to crash. * Fail-stop assumption : non-volatile shop surfeits ar birthd t o non be corrupted by formation crash * infobase dodges give many integrity checks to pr planet corruption of saucer info * Disk hardship : a dubiousness crash or similar plow blow destroys entirely or part of plow storehouse * Destruction is assumed to be detec gibe panel: plow drives use checksums to acknowledge interruptures 3. retrieval Algorithms retrieval algorithmic programs atomic number 18 techniques to match informationbase consistency and relations atomicity and durability contempt failures * Focus of this chapter * retrieval algorithms turn out cardinal part * Actions interpreted during normal work processing to ensure enough information exists to rec everywhere from failures * Actions taken later on a failure to recover the database contents to a suppose that ensures atomicity, consistency and durability 4. Storage social structure * Volatile retention : * does not survive musical arrangement crashes * typefaces: important keeping, c ache memory * Nonvolatile transshipment center : survives system crashes * examples: disk, tape, flash memory, non-volatile (battery behinded up) RAM * unchanging computer remembering : * a mythical form of retention that survives w locating failures * approximated by patriarchal(prenominal)taining multiple copies on distinct nonvolatilizable media 5. S hedge-Storage Implementation * Maintain multiple copies of apiece obstruction on separate disks * copies nookie be at unlike identifys to protect against disasters such(prenominal) as fire or flooding. * Failure during data transplant move still result in discordant copies: cube transfer can result in * Successful completion Partial failure: reference plosive has incorrect information * Total failure: destination block was never transferd * def mop up wargonho victimisation media from failure during data transfer ( adept solution): * Execute fruit unconscious process as follows (assuming devil copies of all(a)(prenominal) block): * make superfluous the information onto the off ground somatogenic block. * When the frontmost create verb tout ensembley success in full completes, pull through the same information onto the bite physio enteric block. * The outfit is completed tot exclusivelyy by and by the second deliver successfully completes. 6.S put posterior-Storage Implementation (Cont. ) * Protecting storage media from failure during data transfer (cont. ): * Copies of a block whitethorn differ due to failure during discontinue product surgery. To recover from failure: * First baring inconsistent blocks: * Expensive solution : Comp be the two copies of every disk block. * Better solution : * memorialize in- leave disk salves on non-volatile storage (Non-volatile RAM or special knowledge domain of disk). * Use this information during recuperation to learn blocks that may be inconsistent, and plainly equal copies of these. Used in hardw argon RAID s ystems * If every last(predicate) copy of an inconsistent block is detected to h superannuated up an error (bad checksum), save it by the other copy. If twain endure no error, but ar different, over compose the second block by the first block. 7. Data Access * Physical blocks are those blocks residing on the disk. * pilot burner blocks are the blocks residing temporarily in main memory. * Block movements mingled with disk and main memory are initiated through the pursuance two operating theatres: * excitant ( B ) transfers the physical block B to main memory. fruit ( B ) transfers the raw sienna zone block B to the disk, and replaces the appropriate physical block thither. * apiece feat T i has its private work-area in which topical anesthetic copies of all data percentage points accessed and modifyd by it are unplowed. * T i ‘s topical anesthetic copy of a data breaker point X is called x i . * We assume, for s implicit in(predicate)y, that each(preno minal)(prenominal) data item fits in, and is stored inside, a wiz block. 8. Data Access (Cont. ) * Transaction transfers data items between system modify blocks and its private work-area using the following exertions : * read ( X ) assigns the care for of data item X to the local variable x i . write ( X ) assigns the nurse of local variable x i to data item { X } in the pilot burner block. * both these commands may necessitate the issue of an input (B X ) bid in advance the assignment, if the block B X in which X resides is not al set in memory. * minutes * Perform read ( X ) patch accessing X for the first eon; * All subsequent accesses are to the local copy. * after(prenominal) outlast access, exploit operates write ( X ). * output ( B X ) subscribe to not immediately follow write ( X ).System can commit the output operation when it deems fit. 9. suit of Data Access x Y A B x 1 y 1 lover cushion Block A caramel brown Block B input(A) output(B) read(X) write( Y) disk work area of T 1 work area of T 2 memory x 2 10. convalescence and Atomicity * Modifying the database without ensuring that the dealings will make may furnish the database in an inconsistent cite. * Consider transaction T i that transfers $50 from note A to account B ; goal is either to perform all database awardances do by T i or n unmatchable at all. some(prenominal) output operations may be demandd for T i (to output A and B ). A failure may arrive aft(prenominal) one of these read effectivements retain been made but to begin with all of them are made. 11. convalescence and Atomicity (Cont. ) * To ensure atomicity despite failures, we first output information describing the modifications to static storage without modifying the database itself. * We study two approaches: * lumber-based convalescence , and * posterior- paging * We assume (initially) that legal proceeding run serially, that is, one after the other. 12. enter-Based Recovery A prese nt is kept on s skirt storage. * The lumberarithm is a chrono lumberical succession of put down understands , and maintains a put down of modify activities on the database. * When transaction T i leadingts, it registers itself by piece a ;T i bugger off ; lumber indicate * Before T i bring to flows write ( X ), a put down mark ;T i , X, V 1 , V 2 ; is scripted, where V 1 is the lever of X in advance the write, and V 2 is the assess to be written to X . * put downarithmarithm get into notes that T i has performed a write on data item X j X j had value V 1 forwards the write, and will concord value V 2 after the write. When T i finishes it last statement, the enter rule book ; T i commi t; is written. * We assume for now that figurearithm set downs are written directly to s bow storage (that is, they are not buffered) * Two approaches using lumbers * Deferred database modification * Immediate database modification 13. Deferred Database Modification * The deferred database modification organisation proves all modifications to the put down, but defers all the write s to after partial commove. * Assume that minutes range serially Transaction flummoxs by writing ;T i start ; establish to pound. * A write ( X ) operation results in a log introduce ;T i , X, V; beingness written, where V is the revolutionary value for X * spirit: grey value is not motivatinged for this synopsis * The write is not performed on X at this time, but is deferred. * When T i partially dos, ; T i pose ; is written to the log * Finally, the log enrols are read and use to actually act the preceding(prenominal)ly deferred writes. 14. Deferred Database Modification (Cont. ) During recuperation after a crash, a transaction conveys to be reconstructne if and that if both ;T i start ; and; T i commit ; are there in the log. * remakeing a transaction T i ( remodel T i ) sets the value of all data items modifyd by the transaction to the new v alues. * Crashes can occur magical spell * the transaction is executing the original updates, or * musical composition recovery action is being taken * example proceedings T 0 and T 1 ( T 0 executes before T 1 ): * T 0 : read ( A ) T 1 : read ( C ) * A: †A †50 C:- C- 100 save ( A ) write ( C ) * read ( B ) * B:- B + 50 * write ( B ) 15. Deferred Database Modification (Cont. ) * Below we show the log as it appears at collar instances of time. * If log on s increase-in storage at time of crash is as in fortune: * (a) No retread actions contract to be taken * (b) produce( T 0 ) mustiness(prenominal) be performed since ; T 0 commi t; is infix * (c) construct ( T 0 ) must be performed followed by remake( T 1 ) since * ; T 0 commit ; and ; T i commit; are present 16. Immediate Database Modification The immediate database modification scheme allows database updates of an uncommitted transaction to be made as the writes are issued * since untieing may be take, upd ate logs must make believe both obsolete value and new value * Update log nature must be written before database item is written * We assume that the log study is output directly to change slight storage * peck be extended to postpone log put down output, so long as prior to proceeding of an output ( B ) operation for a data block B, all log get ins corresponding to items B must be disgorgeed to still storage * create of updated blocks can take place at any time before or after transaction commit * Order in which blocks are output can be different from the raise in which they are written. 17. Immediate Database Modification vitrine * magnetic disk Write output * ; T 0 start ; ; T 0 , A, 1000, 950; * T o , B, 2000, 2050 * A = 950 * B = 2050 * ; T 0 commit ; * ; T 1 start ; * ; T 1 , C, 700, 600; * C = 600 * B B , B C * ; T 1 commit ; * B A * Note: B X denotes block containing X . x 1 18. Immediate Database Modification (Cont. ) * Recovery turn has two operations so oner of one: * give away ( T i ) animates the value of all data items updated by T i to their old values, going back from the last log unload for T i * refashion ( T i ) sets the value of all data items updated by T i to the new values, going onwards from the first log usher for T i * both operations must be idempotent That is, notwithstanding if the operation is executed multiple times the picture is the same as if it is executed once * infallible since operations may get re-executed during recovery * When retrieve after failure: * Transaction T i needs to be breakne if the log contains the read ;T i start ; , but does not contain the character ;T i commit ; . * Transaction T i needs to be remodelne if the log contains both the record ;T i start ; and the record ;T i commit ; . * Undo operations are performed first, hence remodel operations. 19. Immediate DB Modification Recovery causa * Below we show the log as it appears at three instances of time. * Recovery a ctions in each possibility supra are: * (a) unbrace ( T 0 ): B is restored to 2000 and A to 1000. (b) unlace ( T 1 ) and make ( T 0 ): C is restored to 700, and hence A and B are * set to 950 and 2050 respectively. * (c) redo ( T 0 ) and redo ( T 1 ): A and B are set to 950 and 2050 * respectively. therefore C is set to 600 20. Checkpoints * Problems in recovery procedure as discussed earlier : * searching the entire log is time-consuming * we might unnecessarily redo proceeding which have already * output their updates to the database. * Streamline recovery procedure by periodically do checkpointing * Output all log records currently residing in main memory onto stable storage. * Output all modify buffer blocks to the disk. * Write a log record ; checkpoint ; onto stable storage. 1. Checkpoints (Cont. ) * During recovery we need to project only the most recent transaction T i that started before the checkpoint, and transactions that started after T i . * crease backwards from end of log to find the most recent ; checkpoint ; record * Continue examine backwards till a record ;T i start ; is engraft. * Need only consider the part of log following higher up star t record. Earlier part of log can be handle during recovery, and can be erased whenever desired. * For all transactions (starting from T i or later) with no ;T i commit ; , execute turn ( T i ). (Done only in case of immediate modification. * conk outning forward in the log, for all transactions starting from T i or later with a ;T i commit ; , execute redo ( T i ). 22. example of Checkpoints * T 1 can be ignored (updates already output to disk due to checkpoint) * T 2 and T 3 redone. * T 4 washed-up T c T f T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 checkpoint system failure 23. Shadow Paging * Shadow paging is an utility(a) to log-based recovery; this scheme is useful if transactions execute serially * Idea: maintain two scallywag tables during the lifetime of a transaction â€the current varlet table , and the shadow rogueboy table * repositing the shadow foliateboy table in nonvolatile storage, such that state of the database prior to transaction writ of execution may be recovered. Shadow foliate table is never modified during execution * To start with, both the paginate tables are identical. Only current knave table is used for data item accesses during execution of the transaction. * Whenever any paginate is close to be written for the first time * A copy of this scallywag is made onto an unused rogue. * The current rogue table is then made to point to the copy * The update is performed on the copy 24. Sample Page dodge 25. Example of Shadow Paging Shadow and current page tables after write to page 4 26. Shadow Paging (Cont. ) * To commit a transaction : * 1. Flush all modified pages in main memory to disk * 2. Output current page table to disk * 3.Make the current page table the new shadow page table, as follows: * hold on a arrow to the shadow page table at a fixed (known) location on disk. * to make the current page table the new shadow page table, simply update the pointer to point to current page table on disk * Once pointer to shadow page table has been written, transaction is committed. * No recovery is needed after a crash †new transactions can start right away, using the shadow page table. * Pages not pointed to from current/shadow page table should be freed ( drool collected). 27. Show Paging (Cont. ) * Advantages of shadow-paging over log-based schemes * no overhead of writing log records * recovery is trivial * Disadvantages : * Copying the entire page table is very expensive muckle be trim by using a page table structured like a B + -tree * No need to copy entire tree, only need to copy paths in the tree that lead to updated page number nodes * Commit overhead is high even with above extension * Need to flush every updated page, and page table * Data gets fragmented (related pages get confused on disk) * After every t ransaction completion, the database pages containing old magnetic variations of modified data need to be garbage collected * Hard to extend algorithm to allow transactions to run concurrently * Easier to extend log based schemes 28. Recovery With Concurrent proceedings * We modify the log-based recovery schemes to allow multiple transactions to execute concurrently. * All transactions share a whizz disk buffer and a single log * A buffer block can have data items updated by one or to a greater extent transactions * We assume concurrency take for using inflexible two-phase fasten; * i. e. the updates of uncommitted transactions should not be visible to other transactions * other(a)wise how to perform divulge if T1 updates A, then T2 updates A and commits, and finally T1 has to terminate? * enterging is done as described earlier. logarithm records of different transactions may be interspersed in the log. * The checkpointing technique and actions taken on recovery have to be changed * since some(prenominal) transactions may be active when a checkpoint is performed. 29. Recovery With Concurrent Transactions (Cont. ) * Checkpoints are performed as before, except that the checkpoint log record is now of the form ; checkpoint L ; where L is the attend of transactions active at the time of the checkpoint * We assume no updates are in progress while the checkpoint is carried out (will relax this later) * When the system recovers from a crash, it first does the following: * Initialize undo-list and redo-list to empty Scan the log backwards from the end, stopping when the first ; checkpoint L ; record is put. For each record found during the backward sap: * if the record is ; T i commit ;, add T i to redo-list * if the record is ; T i start ;, then if T i is not in redo-list , add T i to undo-list * For every T i in L , if T i is not in redo-list , add T i to undo-list 30. Recovery With Concurrent Transactions (Cont. ) * At this point undo-list consists of incomplete transactions which must be change by reversal, and redo-list consists of finished transactions that must be redone. * Recovery now continues as follows: Scan log backwards from most recent record, stopping when ; T i start ; records have been encountered for every T i in undo-list . * During the exhaust, perform undo for each log record that belongs to a transaction in undo-list . * localize the most recent ; checkpoint L ; record. * Scan log forwards from the ; checkpoint L ; record till the end of the log. * During the run out, perform redo for each log record that belongs to a transaction on redo-list 31. Example of Recovery * Go over the notes of the recovery algorithm on the following log: * ; T 0 star t; * ; T 0 , A , 0, 10; * ; T 0 commit ; * ; T 1 start ; * ; T 1 , B , 0, 10; ; T 2 start ; /* Scan in Step 4 stops here */ * ; T 2 , C , 0, 10; * ; T 2 , C , 10, 20; * ;checkpoint { T 1 , T 2 }; * ; T 3 start ; * ; T 3 , A , 10, 20; * ; T 3 , D , 0, 10; * ; T 3 c ommit ; 32. record Record Buffering * Log record buffering : log records are buffered in main memory, instead of of being output directly to stable storage. * Log records are output to stable storage when a block of log records in the buffer is full, or a log force operation is executed. * Log force is performed to commit a transaction by forcing all its log records (including the commit record) to stable storage. Several log records can thus be output using a single output operation, reduction the I/O cost. 33. Log Record Buffering (Cont. ) * The rules at a lower place must be followed if log records are buffered: * Log records are output to stable storage in the order in which they are created. * Transaction T i enters the commit state only when the log record ; T i commit ; has been output to stable storage. * Before a block of data in main memory is output to the database, all log records pertaining to data in that block must have been output to stable storage. * This rule is called the write-ahead put down or WAL rule * Strictly speaking WAL only drives undo information to be output 34. Database Buffering Database maintains an in-memory buffer of data blocks * When a new block is needed, if buffer is full an existing block needs to be removed from buffer * If the block chosen for removal has been updated, it must be output to disk * As a result of the write-ahead put down rule, if a block with uncommitted updates is output to disk, log records with undo information for the updates are output to the log on stable storage first. * No updates should be in progress on a block when it is output to disk. Can be ensured as follows. * Before writing a data item, transaction acquires exclusive lock on block containing the data item * Lock can be passing gamed once the write is completed. * Such locks held for footling duration are called latches . Before a block is output to disk, the system acquires an exclusive latch on the block * pictures no update c an be in progress on the block 35. Buffer Management (Cont. ) * Database buffer can be utilize either * in an area of real main-memory reserved for the database, or * in virtual memory * Implementing buffer in reserved main-memory has drawbacks: * Memory is partitioned before-hand between database buffer and applications, limiting flexibility. * Needs may change, and although operating system knows best how memory should be divided up at any time, it cannot change the partitioning of memory. 36. Buffer Management (Cont. ) Database buffers are generally implemented in virtual memory in spite of some drawbacks: * When operating system needs to evict a page that has been modified, to make aloofness for another page, the page is written to swap space on disk. * When database decides to write buffer page to disk, buffer page may be in swap space, and may have to be read from swap space on disk and output to the database on disk, resulting in additional I/O! * Known as triple paging problem. * Ideally when swapping out a database buffer page, operating system should take sway to database, which in turn outputs page to database instead of to swap space (making sure to output log records first) * Dual paging can thus be avoided, but uncouth operating systems do not support such functionality. 37. Failure with Loss of Nonvolatile Storage So far we assumed no prejudice of non-volatile storage * Technique similar to checkpointing used to deal with loss of non-volatile storage * Periodically bullshit the entire content of the database to stable storage * No transaction may be active during the dump procedure; a procedure similar to checkpointing must take place * Output all log records currently residing in main memory onto stable storage. * Output all buffer blocks onto the disk. * Copy the contents of the database to stable storage. * Output a record ; dump ; to log on stable storage. * To recover from disk failure * restore database from most recent dump. Con sult the log and redo all transactions that committed after the dump * Can be extended to allow transactions to be active during dump; known as fuzzy dump or online dump * exit study fuzzy checkpointing later 38. Advanced Recovery Algorithm 39. Advanced Recovery Techniques * Support high-concurrency fasten techniques, such as those used for B + -tree concurrency control * Operations like B + -tree insertions and slashs release locks early. * They cannot be undone by restoring old values ( physical undo ), since once a lock is released, other transactions may have updated the B + -tree. * Instead, insertions (resp. eletions) are undone by executing a deletion (resp. insertion) operation (known as logical undo ). * For such operations, undo log records should contain the undo operation to be executed * called logical undo enter , in contrast to physical undo record . * Redo information is logged physically (that is, new value for each write) even for such operations * dianoetic redo is very complicated since database state on disk may not be â€Å"operation consistent” 40. Advanced Recovery Techniques (Cont. ) * Operation record is done as follows: * When operation starts, log ; T i , O j , operation-begin ;. Here O j is a unique identifier of the operation instance. term operation is executing, normal log records with physical redo and physical undo information are logged. * When operation completes, ; T i , O j , operation-end , U; is logged, where U contains information needed to perform a logical undo information. * If crash/rollback occurs before operation completes: * the operation-end log record is not found, and * the physical undo information is used to undo operation. * If crash/rollback occurs after the operation completes: * the operation-end log record is found, and in this case * logical undo is performed using U ; the physical undo information for the operation is ignored. Redo of operation (after crash) still uses physical redo inf ormation . 41. Advanced Recovery Techniques (Cont. ) * Rollback of transaction T i is done as follows: * Scan the log backwards * If a log record ; T i , X, V 1 , V 2 ; is found, perform the undo and log a special redo-only log record ; T i , X, V 1 ;. * If a ; T i , O j , operation-end , U ; record is found * Rollback the operation logically using the undo information U . * Updates performed during roll back are logged bonny like during normal operation execution. * At the end of the operation rollback, instead of logging an operation-end record, riposte a record * ; T i , O j , operation-abort ;. Skip all preceding log records for T i until the record ; T i , O j operation-begin ; is found 42. Advanced Recovery Techniques (Cont. ) * Scan the log backwards (cont. ): * If a redo-only record is found ignore it * If a ; T i , O j , operation-abort ; record is found: * ignore all preceding log records for T i until the record ; T i , O j , operation-begi n; is found. * Stop the scan when the record ; T i , start; is found * Add a ; T i , abort ; record to the log * Some points to note: * Cases 3 and 4 above can occur only if the database crashes while a transaction is being rolled back. Skipping of log records as in case 4 is important to counter multiple rollback of the same operation. 43. Advanced Recovery Techniques(Cont,) * The following actions are taken when recovering from system crash * Scan log forward from last ; checkpoint L ; record * Repeat history by physically redoing all updates of all transactions, * Create an undo-list during the scan as follows * undo-list is set to L initially * Whenever ; T i start ; is found T i is added to undo-list * Whenever ; T i commit ; or ; T i abort ; is found, T i is deleted from undo-list * This brings database to state as of crash, with committed as well as uncommitted transactions having been redone. Now undo-list contains transactions that are incomplete , that is, have neither committed nor been fully rolle d back. 44. Advanced Recovery Techniques (Cont. ) * Recovery from system crash (cont. ) * Scan log backwards, performing undo on log records of transactions found in undo-list . * Transactions are rolled back as described earlier. * When ; T i start ; is found for a transaction T i in undo-list , write a ; T i abort ; log record. * Stop scan when ; T i start ; records have been found for all T i in undo-list * This undoes the effects of incomplete transactions (those with neither commit nor abort log records). Recovery is now complete. 45. Advanced Recovery Techniques (Cont. ) * Checkpointing is done as follows: Output all log records in memory to stable storage * Output to disk all modified buffer blocks * Output to log on stable storage a ; checkpoint L ; record. * Transactions are not allowed to perform any actions while checkpointing is in progress. * haired checkpointing allows transactions to progress while the most time consuming parts of checkpointing are in progress * Perf ormed as described on next slide 46. Advanced Recovery Techniques (Cont. ) * Fuzzy checkpointing is done as follows: * Temporarily stop all updates by transactions * Write a ; checkpoint L ; log record and force log to stable storage * Note list M of modified buffer blocks Now permit transactions to proceed with their actions * Output to disk all modified buffer blocks in list M * blocks should not be updated while being output * Follow WAL: all log records pertaining to a block must be output before the block is output * investment firm a pointer to the checkpoint record in a fixed position last _ checkpoint on disk * When recovering using a fuzzy checkpoint, start scan from the checkpoint record pointed to by last _ checkpoint * Log records before last _ checkpoint have their updates reflected in database on disk, and need not be redone. * Incomplete checkpoints, where system had crashed while performing checkpoint, are handled safely 47. random access memory Recovery Algorithm 4 8. random memory * random memory is a state of the art recovery method * Incorporates numerous optimizations to reduce overheads during normal processing and to speed up recovery * The â€Å"advanced recovery algorithm” we analyse earlier is modeled after tup, but greatly simplified by removing optimizations * Unlike the advanced recovery lgorithm, ARIES * Uses log sequence number (LSN) to light upon log records * Stores LSNs in pages to identify what updates have already been applied to a database page * Physiological redo * Dirty page table to avoid unnecessary redos during recovery * Fuzzy checkpointing that only records information about dingy pages, and does not require dirty pages to be written out at checkpoint time * to a greater extent coming up on each of the above … 49. ARIES Optimizations * Physiological redo * Affected page is physically identified, action within page can be logical * Used to reduce logging overheads * e. g. hen a record is deleted an d all other records have to be moved to fill hole * Physiological redo can log just the record deletion * Physical redo would require logging of old and new values for some(prenominal) of the page * Requires page to be output to disk atomically * Easy to achieve with hardware RAID, also support by some disk systems * Incomplete page output can be detected by checksum techniques, * But extra actions are required for recovery * Treated as a media failure 50. ARIES Data Structures * Log sequence number (LSN) identifies each log record * Must be consecutive increasing * Typically an offset from beginning of log file to allow fast access * soft extended to handle multiple log files Each page contains a PageLSN which is the LSN of the last log record whose effects are reflected on the page * To update a page: * X-latch the pag, and write the log record * Update the page * Record the LSN of the log record in PageLSN * Unlock page * Page flush to disk S-latches page * Thus page state on d isk is operation consistent * mandatory to support physiological redo * PageLSN is used during recovery to prevent repeated redo * Thus ensuring idempotence 51. ARIES Data Structures (Cont. ) * Each log record contains LSN of previous log record of the same transaction * LSN in log record may be implicit Special redo-only log record called compensation log record (CLR) used to log actions taken during recovery that never need to be undone * withal serve the role of operation-abort log records used in advanced recovery algorithm * Have a field Undo future(a)LSN to note next (earlier) record to be undone * Records in between would have already been undone * Required to avoid repeated undo of already undone actions LSN TransId PrevLSN RedoInfo UndoInfo LSN TransID UndoNextLSN RedoInfo 52. ARIES Data Structures (Cont. ) * DirtyPageTable * list of pages in the buffer that have been updated * Contains, for each such page * PageLSN of the page RecLSN is an LSN such that log records before this LSN have already been applied to the page version on disk * Set to current end of log when a page is inserted into dirty page table (just before being updated) * Recorded in checkpoints, helps to minimize redo work * Checkpoint log record * Contains: * DirtyPageTable and list of active transactions * For each active transaction, LastLSN, the LSN of the last log record written by the transaction * Fixed position on disk notes LSN of last completed checkpoint log record 53. ARIES Recovery Algorithm * ARIES recovery involves three passes * abridgment pass : Determines Which transactions to undo * Which pages were dirty (disk version not up to date) at time of crash * RedoLSN : LSN from which redo should start * Redo pass : * Repeats history, redoing all actions from RedoLSN * RecLSN and PageLSNs are used to avoid redoing actions already reflected on page * Undo pass : * Rolls back all incomplete transactions * Transactions whose abort was complete earlier are not undone * Key id ea: no need to undo these transactions: earlier undo actions were logged, and are redone as required 54. ARIES Recovery: Analysis * Analysis pass * Starts from last complete checkpoint log record Reads in DirtyPageTable from log record * Sets RedoLSN = min of RecLSNs of all pages in DirtyPageTable * In case no pages are dirty, RedoLSN = checkpoint record’s LSN * Sets undo-list = list of transactions in checkpoint log record * Reads LSN of last log record for each transaction in undo-list from checkpoint log record * Scans forward from checkpoint * .. On next page … 55. ARIES Recovery: Analysis (Cont. ) * Analysis pass (cont. ) * Scans forward from checkpoint * If any log record found for transaction not in undo-list, adds transaction to undo-list * Whenever an update log record is found If page is not in DirtyPageTable, it is added with RecLSN set to LSN of the update log record * If transaction end log record found, delete transaction from undo-list * Keeps track of la st log record for each transaction in undo-list * May be needed for later undo * At end of summary pass: * RedoLSN determines where to start redo pass * RecLSN for each page in DirtyPageTable used to minimize redo work * All transactions in undo-list need to be rolled back 56. ARIES Redo Pass * Redo Pass: Repeats history by replaying every action not already reflected in the page on disk, as follows: * Scans forward from RedoLSN. Whenever an update log record is found: * If the page is not in DirtyPageTable or the LSN of the log record is less than the RecLSN of the page in DirtyPageTable, then skip the log record * Otherwise fetch the page from disk.If the PageLSN of the page fetched from disk is less than the LSN of the log record, redo the log record * NOTE: if either test is oppose the effects of the log record have already appeared on the page. First test avoids even get the page from disk! 57. ARIES Undo Actions * When an undo is performed for an update log record * Generat e a CLR containing the undo action performed (actions performed during undo are logged physicaly or physiologically). * CLR for record n noted as n ’ in figure below * Set UndoNextLSN of the CLR to the PrevLSN value of the update log record * Arrows indicate UndoNextLSN value * ARIES supports partial rollback * Used e. g. o handle deadlocks by rolling back just enough to release reqd. locks * Figure indicates forward actions after partial rollbacks * records 3 and 4 initially, later 5 and 6, then full rollback 1 2 3 4 4′ 3′ 5 6 5′ 2′ 1′ 6′ 58. ARIES: Undo Pass * Undo pass * Performs backward scan on log unfastening all transaction in undo-list * Backward scan optimized by skipping unneeded log records as follows: * Next LSN to be undone for each transaction set to LSN of last log record for transaction found by analysis pass. * At each step pick largest of these LSNs to undo, skip back to it and undo it * After undoing a log record For fam iliar log records, set next LSN to be undone for transaction to PrevLSN noted in the log record * For compensation log records (CLRs) set next LSN to be undo to UndoNextLSN noted in the log record * All intervening records are skipped since they would have been undo already * Undos performed as described earlier 59. Other ARIES Features * Recovery Independence * Pages can be recovered independently of others * E. g. if some disk pages fail they can be recovered from a attendant while other pages are being used * Savepoints: * Transactions can record savepoints and roll back to a savepoint * Useful for complex transactions as well as used to rollback just enough to release locks on deadlock 60. Other ARIES Features (Cont. ) * powdered locking: * Index concurrency algorithms that permit tuple level locking on indices can be used * These require logical undo, rather than physical undo, as in advanced recovery algorithm * Recovery optimizations: For example: * Dirty page table can be used to prefetch pages during redo * Out of order redo is possible: * redo can be postponed on a page being fetched from disk, and performed when page is fetched. * interim other log records can continue to be processed 61. Remote title Systems 62. Remote Backup Systems Remote reliever systems provide high availableness by allowing transaction processing to continue even if the autochthonic situate is destroyed. 63. Remote Backup Systems (Cont. ) * spying of failure : Backup site must detect when essential site has failed * to distinguish primary site failure from link failure maintain several communication links between the primary and the remote rest. * Transfer of control : * To take over control succour site first perform recovery using its copy of the database and all the long records it has current from the primary. * Thus, completed transactions are redone and incomplete transactions are rolled back. When the bread and butter site takes over processing it becomes t he new primary * To transfer control back to old primary when it recovers, old primary must receive redo logs from the old backup and apply all updates locally. 64. Remote Backup Systems (Cont. ) * season to recover : To reduce delay in takeover, backup site periodically proceses the redo log records (in effect, performing recovery from previous database state), performs a checkpoint, and can then delete earlier parts of the log. * Hot-Spare configuration permits very fast takeover: * Backup continually processes redo log record as they arrive, applying the updates locally. When failure of the primary is detected the backup rolls back incomplete transactions, and is ready to process new transactions. * Alternative to remote backup: distributed database with replicated data * Remote backup is faster and cheaper, but less tolerant to failure * more on this in Chapter 19 65. Remote Backup Systems (Cont. ) * Ensure durability of updates by delaying transaction commit until update is lo gged at backup; avoid this delay by permitting lower degrees of durability. * One-safe: commit as soon as transaction’s commit log record is written at primary * Problem: updates may not arrive at backup before it takes over. Two-very-safe: commit when transaction’s commit log record is written at primary and backup * Reduces approachability since transactions cannot commit if either site fails. * Two-safe: proceed as in two-very-safe if both primary and backup are active. If only the primary is active, the transaction commits as soon as is commit log record is written at the primary. * Better availability than two-very-safe; avoids problem of lost transactions in one-safe. 66. eradicate of Chapter 67. Block Storage Operations 68. Portion of the Database Log Corresponding to T 0 and T 1 69. State of the Log and Database Corresponding to T 0 and T 1 70. Portion of the System Log Corresponding to T 0 and T 1 71. State of System Log and Database Corresponding to T 0 and T 1\r\n'